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Home > Programming > High Performance Programming > PostgreSQL High Availability Cookbook
PostgreSQL High Availability Cookbook
PostgreSQL High Availability Cookbook

PostgreSQL High Availability Cookbook: Managing a reliable PostgreSQL database , Second Edition

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PostgreSQL High Availability Cookbook

Handling and Avoiding Downtime

In this chapter, we will learn how we should react when outages inevitably occur and how to prepare ourselves for them. We will cover the following recipes in this chapter:

  • Determining acceptable losses
  • Configuration - getting it right the first time
  • Configuration - managing scary settings
  • Identifying important tables
  • Defusing cache poisoning
  • Exploring the magic of virtual IPs
  • Terminating rogue connections
  • Reducing contention with concurrent indexes
  • Managing system migrations
  • Managing software upgrades
  • Mitigating the impact of hardware failure
  • Applying bonus kernel tweaks

Introduction

Every piece of software has bugs. All hardware eventually fails or becomes obsolete. No environment is perfect. As a consequence, even a perfectly healthy database will require downtime periodically. How do we reconcile this need with client expectations, which imply that data is always available, no matter the circumstances?

As users ourselves, we know the frustration associated with attempting to use an application or website that isn't responding. Maybe the only impediment is a message indicating maintenance. No matter the cause, we have to remember to come back later and hope everything is working normally by then. Even with our knowledge about the complexity of software and databases, it is sometimes difficult to ignore an error message that prevents us from managing a bank account or making an online purchase.

Every day, users will be less understanding. Business owners and investors...

Determining acceptable losses

We know that the PostgreSQL database will be offline at some point in the future. Maybe we need an upgrade to remove a critical security vulnerability or address a potential data corruption issue. Perhaps a RAM module is producing errors and needs immediate replacement. Maybe the primary data center was struck by lightning.

No matter the reason, we need to make decisions quickly. A helpful way is to ensure that the decision-making process is basing the answers on what the user expects for various levels of liability and on the context of the user. The QA department will not require the same response level as 10,000 shoppers who can't make a holiday purchase during a critical sale.

System outage and response escalation expectations are generally codified in a Service Level Agreement (SLA). How long should the maintenance last? How often should planned outages occur? When should...

Configuration - getting it right the first time

An important aspect of setting up a highly-available database is starting with a stable configuration that will not require a lot of future modifications. Even settings that can be changed during database operation can drastically alter its performance profile and behavior. Other settings may require a full database restart, which can lead to a short outage, depending on how resilient the frontend application is.

We want to avoid introducing instability into our PostgreSQL database from the very beginning. To that end, we are going to explore common (and perhaps, uncommon) configuration options to use in a highly-available installation.

Getting ready

The PostgreSQL documentation describes all of the settings we will...

Configuration - managing scary settings

When it comes to highly-available database servers and configuration, a very important aspect is whether or not a changed setting requires a database restart before taking effect. While it is true that many of these are important enough and they should be set correctly before starting the server, sometimes our requirements evolve.

If or when this happens, there is no alternative but to restart the PostgreSQL service. There are, of course, steps we can take to avoid this fate. Perhaps, an existing server didn't need the WAL output to be compatible with hot standby servers. Maybe, we need to move the logfile, enable WAL archival, or increase the amount of connections.

These are all scenarios that require us to restart PostgreSQL. We can avoid this by identifying these settings early and paying special attention to them.

...

Identifying important tables

Another aspect of maintaining a highly-available database is to know all of the important information about the contents of the database itself. In this case, we aim to focus on tables and indexes that receive the most activity. If any problems that might require maintenance or a restart arise, the most active portions are the likely origin.

What is activity? Inserts, updates, deletes, and selects are a good start. PostgreSQL collects statistics on all of this information, making it easy to collect and track. It also tracks how often indexes or tables are scanned and how many rows were affected by each. In addition, we can find out how much disk space any object consumes, and given the help of a couple of contributed tools, we can also find out how much of this space is currently reusable.

Data like this tells us which tables and indexes are the most active, which objects have the highest...

Introduction

Every piece of software has bugs. All hardware eventually fails or becomes obsolete. No environment is perfect. As a consequence, even a perfectly healthy database will require downtime periodically. How do we reconcile this need with client expectations, which imply that data is always available, no matter the circumstances?

As users ourselves, we know the frustration associated with attempting to use an application or website that isn't responding. Maybe the only impediment is a message indicating maintenance. No matter the cause, we have to remember to come back later and hope everything is working normally by then. Even with our knowledge about the complexity of software and databases, it is sometimes difficult to ignore an error message that prevents us from managing a bank account or making an online purchase.

Every day, users will be less understanding. Business owners and investors who may be losing millions in potential sales and liabilities while a system is unavailable...

Determining acceptable losses

We know that the PostgreSQL database will be offline at some point in the future. Maybe we need an upgrade to remove a critical security vulnerability or address a potential data corruption issue. Perhaps a RAM module is producing errors and needs immediate replacement. Maybe the primary data center was struck by lightning.

No matter the reason, we need to make decisions quickly. A helpful way is to ensure that the decision-making process is basing the answers on what the user expects for various levels of liability and on the context of the user. The QA department will not require the same response level as 10,000 shoppers who can't make a holiday purchase during a critical sale.

System outage and response escalation expectations are generally codified in a Service Level Agreement (SLA). How long should the maintenance last? How often should planned outages occur? When should users be informed and to what extent? Who is included in the set of potential database...

Configuration - getting it right the first time

An important aspect of setting up a highly-available database is starting with a stable configuration that will not require a lot of future modifications. Even settings that can be changed during database operation can drastically alter its performance profile and behavior. Other settings may require a full database restart, which can lead to a short outage, depending on how resilient the frontend application is.

We want to avoid introducing instability into our PostgreSQL database from the very beginning. To that end, we are going to explore common (and perhaps, uncommon) configuration options to use in a highly-available installation.

Getting ready

The PostgreSQL documentation describes all of the settings we will be discussing. We recommend that you visit the https://www.postgresql.org/ website and read the documentation regarding server configuration. There's probably too much to absorb before continuing with this section, but we recommend...

Configuration - managing scary settings

When it comes to highly-available database servers and configuration, a very important aspect is whether or not a changed setting requires a database restart before taking effect. While it is true that many of these are important enough and they should be set correctly before starting the server, sometimes our requirements evolve.

If or when this happens, there is no alternative but to restart the PostgreSQL service. There are, of course, steps we can take to avoid this fate. Perhaps, an existing server didn't need the WAL output to be compatible with hot standby servers. Maybe, we need to move the logfile, enable WAL archival, or increase the amount of connections.

These are all scenarios that require us to restart PostgreSQL. We can avoid this by identifying these settings early and paying special attention to them.

Getting ready

PostgreSQL has a lot of useful views for DBAs to get information about the database and its current state. For this section...

Identifying important tables

Another aspect of maintaining a highly-available database is to know all of the important information about the contents of the database itself. In this case, we aim to focus on tables and indexes that receive the most activity. If any problems that might require maintenance or a restart arise, the most active portions are the likely origin.

What is activity? Inserts, updates, deletes, and selects are a good start. PostgreSQL collects statistics on all of this information, making it easy to collect and track. It also tracks how often indexes or tables are scanned and how many rows were affected by each. In addition, we can find out how much disk space any object consumes, and given the help of a couple of contributed tools, we can also find out how much of this space is currently reusable.

Data like this tells us which tables and indexes are the most active, which objects have the highest row turnover, and which objects require a high disk I/O. Armed with these...

Defusing cache poisoning

Not every DBA has experienced disk cache poisoning. Those who have recognize it as a bane to any critical OLTP system and a source of constant stress in a highly-available environment.

When the operating system fetches disk blocks into memory, it also applies arbitrary aging, promotion, and purging heuristics. Several of these can invalidate cached data in the presence of an originating process change such as a database crash or restart. Any memory stored by PostgreSQL in shared memory is also purged upon database shutdown.

Perhaps the worst thing a DBA can do following a database crash or a restart is to immediately make the database available to applications and users. Unless storage is based on SSD or a very capable SAN, random read performance will drop by two or three orders of magnitude as data is being supplied by slow disks instead of by memory. As a result, all subsequent queries will greatly over-saturate the available disk bandwidth. This delays query results...

Exploring the magic of virtual IPs

As we're running a highly-available database, we have at least one standby copy available at all times, right? Of course we do. However, after promoting a standby copy to act as a primary, we need to redirect traffic to the new server. How can we do this easily?

One common method is to use a database connection pool. The pool acts as a connection proxy and simply needs each known node to be registered so that it can redirect connections to the proper primary database server. We will eventually discuss this approach, but there's actually a simpler tool available to us that requires no additional software.

Another method is to change DNS to redirect network connections to the new server. The beauty of this technique is that it masquerades the entire access path to the server so that services other than PostgreSQL can access the new server as well. Unfortunately, subdomains are tied to a single IP address. As DBAs, we probably don't have access to most of the...

Terminating rogue connections

There comes a time in every DBA's life when they must disconnect a PostgreSQL client from the server; for us, that time is now. There are varying degrees of escalation available for this purpose, and several system catalog views to provide viable targets. Why would we want to forcefully cancel a query or disconnect a user?

To prevent utter havoc, should a user forget an important clause, a query could require several hours to complete. During this time, it is consuming an entire CPU and saturating the storage bandwidth while doing so. A buggy application could start a transaction and stop responding, leaving an idle transaction potentially holding locks and causing a wait backlog.

There are many reasons to evict a connection, and most of them revolve around maintaining a regular flow of queries. If we're unable to maintain low latency and high throughput, our work in building a highly-available environment is wasted.

Getting ready

Luckily, PostgreSQL provides most...

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Key benefits

  • Create a PostgreSQL cluster that stays online even when disaster strikes
  • Avoid costly downtime and data loss that can ruin your business
  • Updated to include the newest features introduced in PostgreSQL 9.6 with hands-on industry-driven recipes

Description

Databases are nothing without the data they store. In the event of a failure - catastrophic or otherwise - immediate recovery is essential. By carefully combining multiple servers, it’s even possible to hide the fact a failure occurred at all. From hardware selection to software stacks and horizontal scalability, this book will help you build a versatile PostgreSQL cluster that will survive crashes, resist data corruption, and grow smoothly with customer demand. It all begins with hardware selection for the skeleton of an efficient PostgreSQL database cluster. Then it’s on to preventing downtime as well as troubleshooting some real life problems that administrators commonly face. Next, we add database monitoring to the stack, using collectd, Nagios, and Graphite. And no stack is complete without replication using multiple internal and external tools, including the newly released pglogical extension. Pacemaker or Raft consensus tools are the final piece to grant the cluster the ability to heal itself. We even round off by tackling the complex problem of data scalability. This book exploits many new features introduced in PostgreSQL 9.6 to make the database more efficient and adaptive, and most importantly, keep it running.

Who is this book for?

If you are a PostgreSQL DBA working on Linux systems who want a database that never gives up, this book is for you. If you've ever experienced a database outage, restored from a backup, spent hours trying to repair a malfunctioning cluster, or simply want to guarantee system stability, this book is definitely for you.

What you will learn

  • Protect your data with PostgreSQL replication and management tools such as Slony, Bucardo, pglogical, and WAL-E
  • Hardware planning to help your database run efficiently
  • Prepare for catastrophes and prevent them before they happen
  • Reduce database resource contention with connection pooling using pgpool and PgBouncer
  • Automate monitoring and alerts to visualize cluster activity using Nagios and collected
  • Construct a robust software stack that can detect and fix outages
  • Learn simple PostgreSQL High Availability with Patroni, or dive into the full power of Pacemaker.
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Publication date, Length, Edition, Language, ISBN-13
Publication date : Feb 08, 2017
Length: 536 pages
Edition : 2nd
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781787125537
Category :
Programming
Concepts :
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Tools :
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Publication date : Feb 08, 2017
Length: 536 pages
Edition : 2nd
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781787125537
Category :
Programming
Concepts :
High Performance Programming
Tools :
PostgreSQL

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Table of Contents

11 Chapters
Hardware Planning Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Hardware Planning
Introduction
Planning for redundancy
Having enough IOPS
Sizing storage
Investing in a RAID
Picking a processor
Making the most of memory
Exploring nimble networking
Managing motherboards
Selecting a chassis
Saddling up to a SAN
Tallying up
Protecting your eggs
Handling and Avoiding Downtime Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Handling and Avoiding Downtime
Introduction
Determining acceptable losses
Configuration - getting it right the first time
Configuration - managing scary settings
Identifying important tables
Defusing cache poisoning
Exploring the magic of virtual IPs
Terminating rogue connections
Reducing contention with concurrent indexes
Managing system migrations
Managing software upgrades
Mitigating the impact of hardware failure
Applying bonus kernel tweaks
Pooling Resources Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Pooling Resources
Introduction
Determining connection costs and limits
Installing PgBouncer
Configuring PgBouncer safely
Connecting to PgBouncer
Listing PgBouncer server connections
Listing PgBouncer client connections
Evaluating PgBouncer pool health
Installing pgpool
Configuring pgpool for master/slave mode
Testing a write query on pgpool
Swapping active nodes with pgpool
Combining the power of PgBouncer and pgpool
Troubleshooting Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Troubleshooting
Introduction
Performing triage
Installing common statistics packages
Evaluating the current disk performance with iostat
Tracking I/O-heavy processes with iotop
Viewing past performance with sar
Correlating performance with dstat
Interpreting /proc/meminfo
Examining /proc/net/bonding/bond0
Checking the pg_stat_activity view
Checking the pg_stat_statements view
Deciphering database locks
Debugging with strace
Logging checkpoints properly
Monitoring Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Monitoring
Introduction
Figuring out what to monitor
Installing and configuring Nagios
Configuring Nagios to monitor a database host
Enhancing Nagios with check_mk
Getting to know check_postgres
Installing and configuring collectd
Adding a custom PostgreSQL monitor to collectd
Installing and configuring Graphite
Adding collectd data to Graphite
Building a graph in Graphite
Customizing a Graphite graph
Creating a Graphite dashboard
Replication Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Replication
Introduction
Deciding what to copy
Securing the WAL stream
Setting up a hot standby
Upgrading to asynchronous replication
Bulletproofing with synchronous replication
Faking replication with pg_receivexlog
Setting up Slony
Copying a few tables with Slony
Setting up Bucardo
Copying a few tables with Bucardo
Setting up Londiste
Copying a few tables with Londiste
Setting up pglogical
Copying a few tables with pglogical
Replication Management Tools Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Replication Management Tools
Introduction
Deciding when to use third-party tools
Installing and configuring Barman
Backing up a database with Barman
Restoring a database with Barman
Installing and configuring OmniPITR
Managing WAL files with OmniPITR
Installing and configuring repmgr
Cloning a database with repmgr
Swapping active nodes with repmgr
Installing and configuring walctl
Cloning a database with walctl
Managing WAL files with walctl
Installing and configuring WAL-E
Managing WAL files with WAL-E
Simple Stack Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Simple Stack
Introduction
Preparing systems for the stack
Installing and configuring etcd
Installing and configuring Patroni
Installing and configuring HAProxy
Performing a managed failover
Using an outage to test availability
Adding a node back into the cluster
Adding additional nodes to the mix
Replacing etcd with ZooKeeper
Replacing etcd with Consul
Upgrading while staying online
Advanced Stack Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Advanced Stack
Introduction
Preparing systems for the stack
Getting started with the Linux Volume Manager
Adding block-level replication
Incorporating the second LVM layer
Verifying a DRBD filesystem
Correcting a DRBD split brain
Formatting an XFS filesystem
Tweaking XFS performance
Maintaining an XFS filesystem
Using LVM snapshots
Switching live stack systems
Detaching a problematic node
Cluster Control Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Cluster Control
Introduction
Installing the necessary components
Configuring Corosync
Preparing startup services
Starting with base options
Adding DRBD to cluster management
Adding LVM to cluster management
Adding XFS to cluster management
Adding PostgreSQL to cluster management
Adding a virtual IP to hide the cluster
Adding an e-mail alert
Grouping associated resources
Combining and ordering related actions
Performing a managed resource migration
Using an outage to test migration
Data Distribution Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Data Distribution
Introduction
Identifying horizontal candidates
Setting up a foreign PostgreSQL server
Mapping a remote user
Creating a foreign table
Using a foreign table in a query
Optimizing foreign table access
Transforming foreign tables into local tables
Creating a scalable nextval replacement
Building a sharding API
Talking to the right shard
Moving a shard to another server

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Customer reviews

Rating distribution
Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon 5
(2 Ratings)
5 star 100%
4 star 0%
3 star 0%
2 star 0%
1 star 0%
Amazon Customer Apr 05, 2018
Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon 5
Good for Postgres DBA work.
Amazon Verified review Amazon
R. Bond Oct 25, 2019
Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon Full star icon 5
This book is very well written for a technical book. The progression of the material is logical, well structured and covers Postgresql High Availability concepts from beginning through advanced.
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50 Algorithms Every Programmer Should Know
50 Algorithms Every Programmer Should Know
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Sep 2023 538 pages
Full star icon 4.5 (67)
eBook
eBook
  • eBook eBook $27.98
  • Paperback Paperback $39.98
$27.98 $39.99
$39.98 $49.99
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About the author

Profile icon Shaun Thomas
Shaun Thomas
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Shaun Thomas has been experimenting with PostgreSQL since late 2000 and serves as a database consultant, teacher, blogger, and support engineer with 2ndQuadrant. He has presented at conferences such as Postgres Open, 2Q PGCONF, and PgConf on topics such as handling extreme throughput, high availability, failover techniques, monitoring tools, database architecture, multi-master conflict avoidance, and high availability upgrade concepts. He believes in a multi-disciplinary approach when it comes to high availability.He believes that PostgreSQL has a stupendous future ahead, and he can't wait to see the advancements subsequent versions will bring.
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Shipping Details

USA:

'

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the US within 10-15 business days

Premium: Trackable Delivery to most addresses in the US within 3-8 business days

UK:

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 7-9 business days.
Shipments are not trackable

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Add one extra business day for deliveries to Northern Ireland and Scottish Highlands and islands

EU:

Premium: Trackable delivery to most EU destinations within 4-9 business days.

Australia:

Economy: Can deliver to P. O. Boxes and private residences.
Trackable service with delivery to addresses in Australia only.
Delivery time ranges from 7-9 business days for VIC and 8-10 business days for Interstate metro
Delivery time is up to 15 business days for remote areas of WA, NT & QLD.

Premium: Delivery to addresses in Australia only
Trackable delivery to most P. O. Boxes and private residences in Australia within 4-5 days based on the distance to a destination following dispatch.

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Premium: Delivery to most Indian addresses within 5-6 business days

Rest of the World:

Premium: Countries in the American continent: Trackable delivery to most countries within 4-7 business days

Asia:

Premium: Delivery to most Asian addresses within 5-9 business days

Disclaimer:
All orders received before 5 PM U.K time would start printing from the next business day. So the estimated delivery times start from the next day as well. Orders received after 5 PM U.K time (in our internal systems) on a business day or anytime on the weekend will begin printing the second to next business day. For example, an order placed at 11 AM today will begin printing tomorrow, whereas an order placed at 9 PM tonight will begin printing the day after tomorrow.


Unfortunately, due to several restrictions, we are unable to ship to the following countries:

  1. Afghanistan
  2. American Samoa
  3. Belarus
  4. Brunei Darussalam
  5. Central African Republic
  6. The Democratic Republic of Congo
  7. Eritrea
  8. Guinea-bissau
  9. Iran
  10. Lebanon
  11. Libiya Arab Jamahriya
  12. Somalia
  13. Sudan
  14. Russian Federation
  15. Syrian Arab Republic
  16. Ukraine
  17. Venezuela