PostgreSQL is an open source object-relational database management system (ORDBMS) distributed under a very permissive license and developed by an active community.

There are a number of PostgreSQL-related services and software (https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/PostgreSQL_derived_databases), either open source or not, that are provided by other software companies. Here, we discuss how to recognize which one you are using.

It is not so easy to detect the variant of PostgreSQL from the name; many of the products and services involving PostgreSQL include the word Postgres or PostgreSQL.

However, if you need to check the documentation, or to buy services such as support and consulting, you need to find out exactly what type your server is, as the available options will vary.

If you are paying a license fee or a cloud service subscription, you will already know the name of the company you are paying, and of the specific variant of PostgreSQL you are subscribed to. But it's not rare to have multiple servers of different types, so it is still useful to be able to tell them apart.

How to do it…

Unfortunately, there isn't a single function or parameter that works on each variant of PostgreSQL and, at the same time, is able to answer that question. The closest you can get is the version() function, which is used in the next recipe, What version is the server?, which returns a textual description of the version you are running, including (but not limited to) the version number.

In some cases, this is enough but, otherwise, you have to determine the specific version from other clues, such as the following:

• The version number for stable releases of community PostgreSQL is either X.Y (with X=10 or above) or X.Y.Z (up to X=9). An extra number usually indicates that you are running a variant of PostgreSQL.
• The presence of certain objects that are available only on a specific variant, for instance, an extension. More details on how to work with extensions can be found in the Listing extensions in this database recipe in this chapter.

There's more...

Some of the PostgreSQL-based services on the cloud will return the same value of version() as community PostgreSQL does. While this is correct, in the sense that they are indeed running that version of PostgreSQL, it doesn't mean that you have the same level of control. For instance, you might not be given a superuser account, and you will probably be unable to install extensions freely.

PostgreSQL has internal version numbers for the data file format, database catalog layout, and crash recovery format. Each of these is checked as the server runs to ensure that the data doesn't become corrupt. PostgreSQL doesn't change these internal formats for a single minor release; they only change across major releases.

From a user's perspective, each release differs in terms of the way the server behaves. If you know your application well, then it should be possible to assess the differences simply by reading the release notes for each version. In many cases, a retest of the application is the safest thing to do.

If you experience any general problems related to setup and configuration with your database, then you'll need to double-check which version of the server you have. This will help you to report a fault or to consult the correct version of the manual.

How to do it…

We will find out the version by querying the database server directly:

1. Connect to the database and issue the following command:

   postgres=# SELECT version();

2. You'll get a response that looks something like this:

   PostgreSQL 14.0 (Debian 14.0-1.pgdg100+1) on x86_64-pc-linux-gnu, compiled by gcc (Debian 8.3.0-6) 8.3.0, 64-bit

That's probably too much information all at once!

Another way of checking the version number in your programs is as follows:

postgres=# SHOW server_version; 

The preceding shows the version in text form, so you may also want a numerical value that is easier to compare using a greater than symbol, in which case you execute this command instead:

postgres=# SHOW server_version_num;

Another alternative is via command-line utilities, such as this:

bash # psql --version
psql (PostgreSQL) 14.0 (Debian 14.0-1.pgdg100+1)

However, be wary that this shows the client software version number, which may differ from the server software version number. This will usually be reported to you so that you're aware.

How it works…

The current PostgreSQL server version format is composed of two numbers; the first number indicates the major release, and the second one denotes subsequent maintenance releases for that major release. It is common to mention just the major release when discussing what features are supported, as they are unchanged on a maintenance release.

14.0 is the first release of PostgreSQL 14, and subsequent maintenance releases will be 14.1, 14.2, 14.3, and so on. In the preceding example, we see that 14.0 is the version of that PostgreSQL server.

For each major release, there is a separate version of the manual, since the feature set is not the same. If something doesn't work exactly the way you think it should, make sure you are consulting the correct version of the manual.

There's more…

Prior to release 10, PostgreSQL was using a three-part numbering series, meaning that the feature set and compatibility related to the first two numbers, while maintenance releases were denoted by the third number. For instance, version 9.6 contained more additional features and compatibility changes when compared to version 9.5; version 9.6.0 was the initial release of 9.6, and version 9.6.1 was a later maintenance release.

The release support policy for PostgreSQL is available at http://www.postgresql.org/support/versioning/. This article explains that each release will be supported for a period of 5 years. Since we release one major version per year, this means 5 major releases.

Support for all releases up to and including 9.6 ended in September 2021. So, by the time you're reading this book, only PostgreSQL 10 and higher versions will be supported. The earlier versions are still robust, although many performance and enterprise features are missing from those releases. The future end-of-support dates are as follows:

Figure 2.1 – A table showing PostgreSQL version release dates

You may be wondering, how long has it been since the server started?

For instance, you might want to verify that there was no server crash if your server is not monitored, or to see when the server was last restarted, for instance, to change the configuration. We will find this out by asking the database server.

How to do it…

Issue the following SQL from any interface:

postgres=# SELECT date_trunc('second', current_timestamp - pg_postmaster_start_time()) as uptime;

You should get the output as follows:

     uptime 
--------------------------------------
 2 days 02:48:04

How it works…

Postgres stores the server start time, so we can access it directly, as follows:

postgres=# SELECT pg_postmaster_start_time(); 
pg_postmaster_start_time 
----------------------------------------------
2021-10-01 19:37:41.389134+00

Then, we can write a SQL query to get the uptime, like this:

postgres=# SELECT current_timestamp - pg_postmaster_start_time(); 
?column? 
-----------------
 02:59:18.925917

Finally, we can apply some formatting:

postgres=# SELECT date_trunc('second', current_timestamp - pg_postmaster_start_time()) as uptime; 
     uptime 
----------
 03:00:26

See also

This is simple stuff. Further monitoring and statistics are covered in Chapter 8, Monitoring and Diagnosis.

Database server files are initially stored in a location referred to as the data directory. Additional data files may also be stored in tablespaces if any exist.

In this recipe, you will learn how to find the location of these directories on a given database server.

Getting ready

You'll need to get operating system access to the database system, which is what we call the platform on which the database runs.

How to do it...

If you can connect using psql, then you can use this command:

postgres=# SHOW data_directory; 
    data_directory
----------------------
 /var/lib/pgsql/data/

If not, the following are the system default data directory locations:

• Debian or Ubuntu systems: /var/lib/postgresql/MAJOR_RELEASE/main
• Red Hat RHEL, CentOS, and Fedora: /var/lib/pgsql/data/
• Windows: C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\MAJOR_RELEASE\data

MAJOR_RELEASE is composed of just one number (for release 10 and above) or two (for releases up to 9.6).

On Debian or Ubuntu systems, the configuration files are located in /etc/postgresql/MAJOR_RELEASE/main/, where main is just the name of a database server. Other names are also possible. For the sake of simplicity, we assume that you only have a single installation, although the point of including the release number and database server name as components of the directory path is to allow multiple database servers to coexist on the same host.

Note

The pg_lsclusters utility is specific to Debian/Ubuntu and displays a list of all the available database servers, including information for each server.

The information for each server includes the following:

• Major release number
• Port
• Status (for example, online and down)
• Data directory
• Log file

The pg_lsclusters utility is part of the postgresql-common Debian/Ubuntu package, which provides a structure under which multiple versions of PostgreSQL can be installed, and multiple clusters can be maintained, at the same time.

In the packages distributed with Red Hat RHEL, CentOS, and Fedora, the default data directory location also contains the configuration files (*.conf) by default. However, note that the packages distributed by the PostgreSQL community use a different default location: /var/lib/pgsql/MAJOR_RELEASE/data/.

Again, that is just the default location. You can create additional data directories using the initdb utility.

The initdb utility populates the given data directory with the initial content. The directory will be created for convenience if it is missing but, for safety, the utility will stop if the data directory is not empty. The initdb utility will read the data directory name from the PGDATA environment variable unless the -d command-line option is used.

How it works...

Even though the Debian/Ubuntu and Red Hat file layouts are different, they both follow the Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS), so neither layout is wrong.

The Red Hat layout is simpler and easier to understand. The Debian/Ubuntu layout is more complex, but it has different and more adventurous goals. The Debian/Ubuntu layout is similar to the Optimal Flexible Architecture (OFA) of other database systems. As pointed out earlier, the goals are to provide a file layout that will allow you to have multiple PostgreSQL database servers on one system and to allow many versions of the software to exist in the filesystem at once.

Again, the layouts for the Windows and OS X installers are different. Multiple database clusters are possible, but they are also more complex than on Debian/Ubuntu.

I recommend that you follow the Debian/Ubuntu layout on whichever platform you are using. It doesn't really have a name, so I call it the PostgreSQL Flexible Architecture (PFA). Clearly, if you are using Debian or Ubuntu, then the Debian/Ubuntu layout is already being used. If you do this on other platforms, you'll need to lay things out yourself, but it does pay off in the long run. To implement PFA, you can set the following environment variables to name parts of the file layout:

export PGROOT=/var/lib/pgsql/ 
export PGRELEASE=14
export PGSERVERNAME=mamba 
export PGDATA=$PGROOT/$PGRELEASE/$PGSERVERNAME

In this example, PGDATA is /var/lib/pgsql/14/mamba.

Finally, you must run initdb to initialize the data directory, as noted earlier, and custom administration scripts should be prepared to automate actions, such as starting or stopping the database server, when the system undergoes similar procedures.

Note that server applications such as initdb can only work with one major PostgreSQL version. On distributions that allow several major versions, such as Debian or Ubuntu, these applications are placed in dedicated directories, which are not put in the default command path. This means that if you just type initdb, the system will not find the executable, and you will get an error message.

This may look like a bug, but in fact, it is the desired behavior. Instead of accessing initdb directly, you are supposed to use the pg_createcluster utility from postgresql-common, which will select the right initdb utility depending on the major version you specify.

Note

If you plan to run more than one database server on the same host, you must set the preceding variables differently for each server as they determine the name of the data directory. For instance, you can set them in the script that you use to start or stop the database server, which would be enough because PGDATA is mostly used only by the database server process.

There's more…

Once you've located the data directory, you can look for the files that comprise the PostgreSQL database server. The layout is as follows:

Figure 2.2 – Contents of the PostgreSQL data directory

None of the aforementioned directories contain user-modifiable files, nor should any of the files be manually deleted to save space, or for any other reason. Don't touch it, because you'll break it, and you may not be able to fix it! It's not even sensible to copy files in these directories without carefully following the procedures described in Chapter 11, Backup and Recovery. Keep off the grass!

We'll talk about tablespaces later in the book. We'll also discuss a performance enhancement that involves putting the transaction log on its own set of disk drives in Chapter 10, Performance and Concurrency.

The only things you are allowed to touch are configuration files, which are all *.conf files, and server message log files. Server message log files may or may not be in the data directory. For more details on this, refer to the next recipe, Locating the database server's message log.

The database server's message log is a record of all messages recorded by the database server. This is the first place to look if you have server problems and a good place to check regularly.

This log will include messages that look something like the following:

2021-09-01 19:37:41 GMT [2507-1] LOG:  database system was shut down at 2021-09-01 19:37:38 GMT
2021-09-01 19:37:41 GMT [2506-1] LOG:  database system is ready to accept connections

We'll explain some more about these logs once we've located the files.

Getting ready

You'll need to get operating system access to the database system, which is what we call the platform on which the database runs.

The server log can be in a few different places, so let's list all of them first so that we can locate the log or decide where we want it to be placed:

• The server log may be in a directory beneath the data directory.
• It may be in a directory elsewhere on the filesystem.
• It may be redirected to syslog.
• There may be no server log at all. In this case, it's time to add a log soon.

If not redirected to syslog, the server log consists of one or more files. You can change the names of these files, so it may not always be the same on every system.

How to do it...

The following are the default server log locations:

• Debian or Ubuntu systems: /var/log/postgresql.
• Red Hat, RHEL, CentOS, and Fedora: /var/lib/pgsql/data/pg_log.
• Windows systems: The messages are sent to the Windows Event Log.

The current server log file is named postgresql-MAJOR_RELEASE-SERVER.log, where SERVER is the name of the server (by default, main), and MAJOR_RELEASE represents the major release of the server, for example, 9.6 or 11 (as we mentioned in a prior recipe, from release 10 onward, the major release is composed by just one number). An example is postgresql-14-main.log, while older log files are numbered as postgresql-14-main.log.1. The higher the final number, the older the file, since they are being rotated by the logrotate utility.

How it works...

The server log is just a file that records messages from the server. Each message has a severity level, the most typical of them being LOG, although there are others, as shown in the following table:

Figure 2.3 – PostgreSQL message severity levels

Watch out for FATAL and PANIC. This shouldn't happen in most cases during normal server operation, apart from certain cases related to replication, so you should also check out Chapter 12, Replication and Upgrades.

You can adjust the number of messages that appear in the log by changing the log_min_messages server parameter. You can also change the amount of information that is displayed for each event by changing the log_error_verbosity parameter. If the messages are sent to a standard log file, then each line in the log will have a prefix of useful information that can also be controlled by the system administrator, with a parameter named log_line_prefix.

You can also alter the what and the how much that goes into the logs by changing other settings such as log_statements, log_checkpoints, log_connections/log_disconnections, log_verbosity, and log_lock_waits.

There's more...

The log_destination parameter controls where the log messages are stored. The valid values are stderr, csvlog, syslog, and eventlog (the latter is only on Windows).

The logging collector is a background process that writes to a log file everything that the PostgreSQL server outputs to stderr. This is probably the most reliable way to log messages in case of problems since it depends on fewer services.

Log rotation can be controlled with settings such as log_rotation_age and log_rotation_size if you are using the logging collector. Alternatively, it is possible to configure the logrotate utility to perform log rotation, which is the default on Debian and Ubuntu systems.

See also

In general, monitoring activities are covered in Chapter 8, Monitoring and Diagnosis, and examining the message log is just one part of it. Refer to the Producing a daily summary of log file errors recipe in Chapter 8, Monitoring and Diagnosis, for more details.

Each database server has a system identifier assigned when the database is initialized (created). The server identifier remains the same if the server is backed up, cloned, and so on.

Many actions on the server are keyed to the system identifier, and you may be asked to provide this information when you report a fault.

In this recipe, you will learn how to display the system identifier.

Getting ready

You need to connect as the Postgres OS user, or another user with execute privileges on the server software.

How to do it…

In order to display the system identifier, we just need to launch the following command:

pg_controldata <data-directory> | grep "system identifier"
Database system identifier:           7015545877453537036 

Note that the preceding syntax will not work on Debian or Ubuntu systems, for the same reasons explained in relation to initdb in the Locating the database server files recipe. However, in this case, there is no postgresql-common alternative, so if you must run pg_controldata, you need to specify the full path to the executable, as in this example:

/usr/lib/postgresql/14/bin/pg_controldata $PGDATA

Tip

Don't use -D in front of the data directory name. This is the only PostgreSQL server application where you don't need to do that.

How it works…

The pg_controldata utility is a PostgreSQL server application that shows the content of a server's control file. The control file is located within the data directory of a server, and it is created at database initialization time. Some of the information within it is updated regularly, and some is only updated when certain major events occur.

The full output of pg_controldata looks like the following (some values may change over time as the server runs):

pg_control version number:            1300
Catalog version number:               202107181
Database system identifier:           7015545877453537036
Database cluster state:               in production
pg_control last modified:             Tue 05 Oct 2021 12:46:26 BST
Latest checkpoint location:           0/16F2EC0
… (not shown in full)

Tip

Never edit the PostgreSQL control file. If you do, the server probably won't start correctly, or you may mask other errors. And if you do that, people will be able to tell, so fess up as soon as possible!

When we connect to PostgreSQL, we always connect to just one specific database on any database server. If there are many databases on a single server, it can get confusing, so sometimes you may just want to find out which databases are parts of the database server.

This is also confusing because we can use the word database in two different, but related, contexts. Initially, we start off by thinking that PostgreSQL is a database in which we put data, referring to the whole database server by just the word database. In PostgreSQL, a database server (also known as a cluster) is potentially split into multiple, individual databases, so, as you get more used to working with PostgreSQL, you'll start to separate the two concepts.

How to do it…

If you have access to psql, you can type the following command:

bash $ psql -l
                               List of databases
   Name    | Owner  | Encoding |   Collate   |    Ctype    | Access privileges
-----------+--------+----------+-------------+-------------+-------------------
 postgres  | sriggs | UTF8     | en_GB.UTF-8 | en_GB.UTF-8 |
 template0 | sriggs | UTF8     | en_GB.UTF-8 | en_GB.UTF-8 | =c/sriggs        +
           |        |          |             |             | sriggs=CTc/sriggs
 template1 | sriggs | UTF8     | en_GB.UTF-8 | en_GB.UTF-8 | =c/sriggs        +
           |        |          |             |             | sriggs=CTc/sriggs
(3 rows)

You can also get the same information while running psql by simply typing \l.

The information that we just looked at is stored in a PostgreSQL catalog table named pg_database. We can issue a SQL query directly against that table from any connection to get a simpler result, as follows:

postgres=# select datname from pg_database;
datname
-----------
template1
template0
postgres
(3 rows)

How it works...

PostgreSQL starts with three databases: template0, template1, and postgres. The main user database is postgres.

You can create your own databases as well, like this:

CREATE DATABASE cookbook;

You can do the same from the command line, using the following expression:

bash $ createdb cookbook

After you've created your databases, be sure to secure them properly, as discussed in Chapter 6, Security.

From now on, we will run our examples in the cookbook database.

When you create another database, it actually takes a copy of an existing database. Once it is created, there is no further link between the two databases.

The template0 and template1 databases are known as template databases. The template1 database can be changed to allow you to create a localized template for any new databases that you create. The template0 database exists so that, when you alter template1, you still have a pristine copy to fall back on. In other words, if you break template1, then you can drop it and recreate it from template0.

You can drop the database named postgres. But don't, okay? Similarly, don't try to touch template0, because you won't be allowed to do anything with it, except use it as a template. On the other hand, the template1 database exists to be modified, so feel free to change it.

There's more...

The information that we just saw is stored in a PostgreSQL catalog table named pg_database. We can look at this directly to get some more information. In some ways, the output is less useful as well, as we need to look up some of the code in other tables:

cookbook=# \x
cookbook=# select * from pg_database;
-[ RECORD 1 ]-+------------------------------
oid           | 1
datname       | template1
datdba        | 10
encoding      | 6
datcollate    | en_GB.UTF-8
datctype      | en_GB.UTF-8
datistemplate | t
datallowconn  | t
datconnlimit  | -1
datlastsysoid | 11620
datfrozenxid  | 644
datminmxid    | 1
dattablespace | 1663
datacl        | {=c/sriggs,sriggs=CTc/sriggs}
-[ RECORD 2 ]-+------------------------------
oid           | 13706
datname       | template0
datdba        | 10
encoding      | 6
datcollate    | en_GB.UTF-8
datctype      | en_GB.UTF-8
datistemplate | t
datallowconn  | f
datconnlimit  | -1
datlastsysoid | 11620
datfrozenxid  | 644
datminmxid    | 1
dattablespace | 1663
datacl        | {=c/sriggs,sriggs=CTc/sriggs}
-[ RECORD 3 ]-+------------------------------
oid           | 13707
datname       | postgres
datdba        | 10
encoding      | 6
datcollate    | en_GB.UTF-8
datctype      | en_GB.UTF-8
datistemplate | f
datallowconn  | t
datconnlimit  | -1
datlastsysoid | 11620
datfrozenxid  | 644
datminmxid    | 1
dattablespace | 1663
datacl        |
-[ RECORD 4 ]-+------------------------------------
oid           | 16408
datname       | cookbook
datdba        | 16384
encoding      | 6
datcollate    | en_GB.UTF-8
datctype      | en_GB.UTF-8
datistemplate | f
datallowconn  | t
datconnlimit  | -1
datlastsysoid | 13706
datfrozenxid  | 726
datminmxid    | 1
dattablespace | 1663
datacl        | 

First of all, look at the use of the \x command. It makes the output in psql appear as one column per line, rather than one row per line.

We've already discussed templates. The other interesting things are that we can turn connections on and off for a database, and we can set connection limits for them, as well.

Also, you can see that each database has a default tablespace. Therefore, data tables get created inside one specific database, and the data files for that table get placed in one tablespace.

You can also see that each database has a collation sequence, which is the way that various language features are defined. We'll cover more on that in the Choosing good names for database objects recipe in Chapter 5, Tables and Data.

The number of tables in a relational database is a good measure of the complexity of a database, so it is a simple way to get to know any database. But the complexity of what? Well, a complex database may have been designed to be deliberately flexible in order to cover a variety of business situations, or a complex business process may have a limited portion of its details covered in the database. So, a large number of tables might reveal a complex business process or just a complex piece of software.

In this recipe, we will show you how to compute the number of tables.

How to do it...

From any interface, type the following SQL command:

SELECT count(*) FROM information_schema.tables
WHERE table_schema NOT IN ('information_schema','pg_catalog');

You can also look at the list of tables directly, and judge whether the list is a small or large number.

In psql, you can see your own tables by using the following command:

$ psql -c "\d"
        List of relations
 Schema |   Name   | Type  |  Owner  
--------+----------+-------+----------
 public | accounts | table | postgres
 public | branches | table | postgres

In pgAdmin 4, you can see the tables in the tree view on the left-hand side, as shown in the following screenshot:

Figure 2.4 – The tree view of database objects in pgAdmin

How it works…

PostgreSQL stores information about the database in catalog tables. They describe every aspect of the way the database has been defined. There is a main set of catalog tables stored in a schema, called pg_catalog. There is a second set of catalog objects called the information schema, which is the standard SQL way of accessing information in a relational database.

We want to exclude both of these schemas from our query, to avoid counting non-user objects. We excluded them in the preceding query using the NOT IN phrase in the WHERE clause.

Excluding partitions from the count is more involved. The information schema shows partitions as the same as tables, which is true for PostgreSQL, so somewhat misleading. So, what we want to do is exclude tables that are also partitions. Partitions are marked in the pg_catalog.pg_class table, with a Boolean column of relispartition. If we use pg_class, we also need to exclude non-tables and ensure we don't include internal schemas, which leaves us with this much more complex query:

SELECT count(*) FROM pg_class
WHERE relkind = 'r'
AND not relispartition
AND relnamespace NOT IN (
     SELECT oid FROM pg_namespace
     WHERE nspname IN ('information_schema','pg_catalog', 'pg_toast')
     AND nspname NOT LIKE 'pg_temp%' AND nspname NOT LIKE 'pg_toast_temp%'
);

Note

Note that this query shows only the number of tables in one of the databases on the PostgreSQL server. You can only see the tables in the database to which you are currently connected, so you'll need to run the same query on each database in turn.

There's more…

The highest number of distinct, major tables I've ever seen in a database is 20,000, without counting partitions, views, and worktables. That clearly rates as a very complex system.

Figure 2.5 – Estimating database complexity based on the number of tables

Of course, you can't always easily tell which tables are entities, so we just need to count the tables. Some databases use a lot of partitions or similar tables, so the numbers can grow dramatically. I've seen databases with up to 200,000 tables (of any kind). That's not recommended, however, as the database catalog tables then begin to become awfully large.

It is very important to allocate sufficient disk space for your database. If the disk gets full, it will not corrupt the data, but it might lead to database server panic and then consequent shutdown.

For planning or space monitoring, we often need to know how big the database is.

How to do it...

We can do this in the following ways:

• Look at the size of the files that make up the database server.
• Run a SQL request to confirm the database size.

If you look at the size of the actual files, you'll need to make sure that you include the data directory and all subdirectories, as well as all other directories that contain tablespaces. This can be tricky, and it is also difficult to break out all the different pieces.

The easiest way is to ask the database a simple query, like this:

SELECT pg_database_size(current_database());

However, this is limited to just the current database. If you want to know the size of all the databases together, then you'll need a query such as the following:

SELECT sum(pg_database_size(datname)) from pg_database;

How it works...

The database server knows which tables it has loaded. It also knows how to calculate the size of each table, so the pg_database_size() function just looks at the file sizes.

The maximum supported table size in the default configuration is 32 TB and it does not require large file support from the operating system. The filesystem size limits do not impact the large tables, as they are stored in multiple 1 GB files.

Large tables can suffer performance issues. Indexes can take much longer to update and query performance can degrade. In this recipe, we will see how to measure the size of a table.

How to do it…

We can see the size of a table by using this command:

cookbook=# select pg_relation_size('pgbench_accounts');

The output of this command is as follows:

pg_relation_size
------------------
           13582336
(1 row)

We can also see the total size of a table, including indexes and other related spaces, as follows:

cookbook=# select pg_total_relation_size('pgbench_accounts');

The output is as follows:

pg_total_relation_size
------------------------
         15425536
(1 row)

We can also use a psql command, like this:

cookbook=# \dt+ pgbench_accounts
                        List of relations
 Schema |       Name       | Type  | Owner  | Size  | Description
--------+------------------+-------+--------+-------+-------------
 gianni | pgbench_accounts | table | gianni | 13 MB |
(1 row)

How it works…

In PostgreSQL, a table is made up of many relations. The main relation is the data table. In addition, there are a variety of additional data files. Each index created on a table is also a relation. Long data values are placed in a secondary table named TOAST, so, in most cases, each table also has a TOAST table and a TOAST index.

Each relation consists of multiple data files. The main data files are broken into 1 GB pieces. The first file has no suffix; others have a numbered suffix (such as .2). There are also files marked _vm and _fsm, which represent the visibility map and free space map, respectively. They are used as part of maintenance operations. They stay fairly small, even for very large tables.

There's more…

The preceding functions, which measure the size of a relation, output the number of bytes, which is normally too large to be immediately clear. You can apply the pg_size_pretty() function to format that number nicely, as shown in the following example:

SELECT pg_size_pretty(pg_relation_size('pgbench_accounts'));

This yields the following output:

pg_size_pretty
----------------
13 MB
(1 row)

TOAST stands for The Oversized-Attribute Storage Technique. As the name implies, this is a mechanism used to store long column values. PostgreSQL allows many data types to store values up to 1 GB in size. It transparently stores large data items in many smaller pieces, so the same data type can be used for data ranging from 1 byte to 1 GB. When appropriate, values are automatically compressed and decompressed before they are split and stored, so the actual limit will vary, depending on compressibility.

You may also see files ending in _init; they are used by unlogged tables and their indexes, for restoring them after a crash. Unlogged objects are called this way because they do not produce WAL. So, they support faster writes, but in the event of a crash they must be truncated; that is, restored to an empty state.

We've looked at getting the size of a specific table, so now it's time to widen the problem to related areas. Rather than having an absolute value for a specific table, let's look at the relative sizes.

How to do it...

The following basic query will tell us the 10 biggest tables:

SELECT quote_ident(table_schema)||'.'||quote_ident(table_name) as name 
      ,pg_relation_size(quote_ident(table_schema)
              || '.' || quote_ident(table_name)) as size
FROM information_schema.tables
WHERE table_schema NOT IN ('information_schema', 'pg_catalog')
ORDER BY size DESC
LIMIT 10;

The tables are shown in descending order of size, with at the most 10 rows displayed. In this case, we look at all the tables in all the schemas, apart from the tables in information_schema or pg_catalog, as we did in the How many tables are in the database? recipe.

How it works…

PostgreSQL provides a dedicated function, pg_relation_size, to compute the actual disk space used by a specific table or index. We just need to provide the table name. In addition to the main data files, there are other files (called forks) that can be measured by specifying an optional second argument. These include the Visibility Map (VM), the Free Space Map (FSM), and the initialization fork for unlogged objects.

There is no limit on the number of rows in a table, but the table is limited to available disk space and memory/swap space. If you are storing rows that exceed an aggregated data size of 2 KB, then the maximum number of rows may be limited to 4 billion or fewer.

Counting is one of the easiest SQL statements, so it is also many people's first experience of a PostgreSQL query.

How to do it…

From any interface, the SQL command used to count rows is as follows:

SELECT count(*) FROM table;

This will return a single integer value as the result.

In psql, the command looks like the following:

cookbook=# select count(*) from orders;
 count 
-------
   345
(1 row)

How it works...

PostgreSQL can choose between two techniques available to compute the SQL count(*) function. Both are available in all the currently supported versions:

• The first is called sequential scan. We access every data block in the table one after the other, reading the number of rows in each block. If the table is on the disk, it will cause a beneficial disk access pattern, and the statement will be fairly fast.
• The other technique is known as an index-only scan. It requires an index on the table, and it covers a more general case than optimizing SQL queries with count(*), so we will cover it in more detail in Chapter 10, Performance and Concurrency.

Some people think that the count SQL statement is a good test of the performance of a DBMS. Some DBMSs have specific tuning features for the count SQL statement, and Postgres optimizes this using index-only scans. The PostgreSQL project has talked about this many times, but few people thought we should try to optimize this. Yes, the count function is frequently used within applications, but without any WHERE clause, it is not that useful. Therefore, the index-only scans feature has been implemented, which applies to more real-world situations, as well as this recipe.

We scan every block of the table because of a major feature of Postgres, named Multiversion Concurrency Control (MVCC). MVCC allows us to run the count SQL statement at the same time that we are inserting, updating, or deleting data from the table. That's a very cool feature, and we went to a lot of trouble in Postgres to provide it for you.

MVCC requires us to record information on each row of a table, stating when that change was made. If the changes were made after the SQL statement began to execute, then we just ignore those changes. This means that we need to carry out visibility checks on each row in the table to allow us to work out the results of the count SQL statement. The optimization provided by index-only scans is the ability to skip such checks on the table blocks that are already known to be visible to all current sessions. Rows in these blocks can be counted directly on the index, which is normally smaller than the table, and is, therefore, faster.

If you think a little deeper about this, you'll see that the result of the count SQL statement is just the value at a moment in time. Depending on what happens to the table, that value could change a little or a lot while the count SQL statement is executing. So, once you've executed this, all you really know is that, at a particular point in the past, there were exactly x rows in the table.

We don't always need an accurate count of rows, especially on a large table that may take a long time to execute. Administrators often need to estimate how big a table is so that they can estimate how long other operations may take.

How to do it…

The Postgres optimizer can provide a quick estimate of the number of rows in a table simply by using its statistics:

EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM mytable;
                          QUERY PLAN                            
----------------------------------------------------------------
 Seq Scan on mytable  (cost=0.00..2640.00 rows=100000 width=97)
(1 row)

We can directly compute a similar number using roughly the same calculation:

SELECT (CASE WHEN reltuples > 0 THEN pg_relation_size(oid)*reltuples/(8192*relpages) 
ELSE 0
END)::bigint AS estimated_row_count
FROM pg_class
WHERE oid = 'mytable'::regclass;

This gives us the following output:

 estimated_row_count
---------------------
               99960
(1 row)

Both queries return a row count very quickly, no matter how large the table that we are examining is, because they use statistics that were collected in advance. You may want to create a SQL function for the preceding calculation, so you won't need to retype the SQL code every now and then.

The following function estimates the total number of rows using a mathematical procedure called extrapolation. In other words, we take the average number of bytes per row resulting from the last statistics collection, and we apply it to the current table size:

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION estimated_row_count(text) 
RETURNS bigint 
LANGUAGE sql 
AS $$ 
SELECT (CASE WHEN reltuples > 0 THEN 
              pg_relation_size($1)*reltuples/(8192*relpages) 
             ELSE 0 
             END)::bigint 
FROM pg_class 
WHERE oid = $1::regclass; 
$$;

How it works…

We saw the pg_relation_size() function earlier, so we know that it brings back an accurate value for the current size of the table.

When we vacuum a table in Postgres, we record two pieces of information in the pg_class catalog entry for the table. These two items are the number of data blocks in the table (relpages) and the number of rows in the table (reltuples). Some people think they can use the value of reltuples in pg_class as an estimate, but it could be severely out of date. You will also be fooled if you use information in another table named pg_stat_user_tables, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 10, Performance and Concurrency.

The Postgres optimizer uses the relpages and reltuples values to calculate the average rows per block, which is also known as the average tuple density.

If we assume that the average tuple density remains constant over time, then we can calculate the number of rows using this formula: Row estimate = number of data blocks * rows per block.

We include some code to handle cases where the reltuples or relpages fields are zero. The Postgres optimizer actually works a little harder than we do in that case, so our estimate isn't very good.

The WHERE oid = 'mytable'::regclass; syntax introduces the concept of object identifier types. They just use a shorthand trick to convert the name of an object to the object identifier number for that object. The best way to understand this is to think of that syntax as meaning the same as a function named relname2relid().

There's more…

The good thing about the preceding recipe is that it returns a value in about the same time, no matter how big the table is. The bad thing about it is that pg_relation_size() requests a lock on the table, so if any other user has an AccessExclusiveLock lock on the table, then the table size estimate will wait for the lock to be released before returning a value.

Err... so what is an AccessExclusiveLock lock? While performing a SQL maintenance action, such as changing the data type of a column, PostgreSQL will lock out all other actions on that table, including pg_relation_size, which takes a lock in the AccessShareLock mode. For me, a typical case is when I issue some form of SQL maintenance action, such as ALTER TABLE, and the statement takes much longer than I thought it would. At that point, I think, Oh, was that table bigger than I thought? How long will I be waiting? Yes, it's better to calculate that beforehand, but hindsight doesn't get you out of the hole you are in right now. So, we need a way to calculate the size of a table without needing the lock.

A solution is to look at the operating system files that Postgres uses to store data, and figure out how large they are, but that requires a high level of security than most people usually allow. In any case, looking at files without a lock could cause problems if the table were dropped or changed.

Every PostgreSQL database contains some objects that are automatically brought in when the database is created. Every user will find a pg_database system catalog that lists databases, as shown in the Listing databases on this database server recipe. There is little point in checking whether these objects exist because even superusers are not allowed to drop them.

On the other hand, PostgreSQL comes with tens of collections of optional objects, called modules, or equivalently extensions. The database administrator can install or uninstall these objects, depending on the requirements. They are not automatically included in a newly created database because they might not be required by every use case. Users will install only the extensions they actually need, when they need them; an extension can be installed while a database is up and running.

In this recipe, we will explain how to list extensions that have been installed on the current database. This is important for getting to know the database better, and also because certain extensions affect the behavior of the database.

How to do it…

In PostgreSQL, there is a catalog table recording the list of installed extensions, so this recipe is quite simple. Issue the following command:

cookbook=> SELECT * FROM pg_extension;

This results in the following output:

-[ RECORD 1 ]--+--------
oid            | 13693
extname        | plpgsql
extowner       | 10
extnamespace   | 11
extrelocatable | f
extversion     | 1.0
extconfig      |
extcondition   |

Note

Note that the format is expanded, as if the \x meta command has been previously issued.

To get the same list with fewer technical details, you can use the \dx meta command, as when listing databases.

How it works…

A PostgreSQL extension is represented by a control file, <extension name>.control, located in the SHAREDIR/extension directory, plus one or more files containing the actual extension objects. The control file specifies the extension name, version, and other information that is useful for the extension infrastructure. Each time an extension is installed, uninstalled, or upgraded to a new version, the corresponding row in the pg_extension catalog table is inserted, deleted, or updated, respectively.

There's more…

In this recipe, we only mentioned extensions distributed with PostgreSQL, and solely for the purpose of listing which ones are being used in the current database. The infrastructure for extensions will be described in greater detail in Chapter 3, Server Configuration. We will talk about the version number of an extension, and we will show you how to install, uninstall, and upgrade extensions, including those distributed independently of PostgreSQL.

See also

To get an idea of which extensions are available, you can browse the list of additional modules shipped together with PostgreSQL, which are almost all extensions, at https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/static/contrib.html.

In most databases, there will be dependencies between objects in the database. Sometimes, we need to understand these dependencies to figure out how to perform certain actions, such as modifying or deleting existing objects. Let's look at this in detail.

Getting ready

We'll use the following simple database to understand and investigate them:

1. Create two tables as follows:

   CREATE TABLE orders (
    orderid integer PRIMARY KEY
   );
   CREATE TABLE orderlines (
    orderid integer
   ,lineid smallint
   ,PRIMARY KEY (orderid, lineid)
   );

2. Now, we add a link between them to enforce what is known as referential integrity, as follows:

   ALTER TABLE orderlines ADD FOREIGN KEY (orderid)
   REFERENCES orders (orderid);

3. If we try to drop the referenced table, we get the following message:

   DROP TABLE orders;
   ERROR: cannot drop table orders because other objects depend on it
   DETAIL: constraint orderlines_orderid_fkey on table orderlines depends on table orders
   HINT: Use DROP ... CASCADE to drop the dependent objects too.

Be very careful! If you follow the hint, you may accidentally remove all the objects that have any dependency on the orders table. You might think that this would be a great idea, but it is not the right thing to do. It might work, but we need to ensure that it will work.

Therefore, you need to know what dependencies are present on the orders table, and then review them. Then, you can decide whether it is okay to issue the CASCADE version of the command, or whether you should reconcile the situation manually.

How to do it…

You can use the following command from psql to display full information about a table, the constraints that are defined upon it, and the constraints that reference it:

\d+ orders

You can also get specific details of the constraints by using the following query:

SELECT * FROM pg_constraint
WHERE confrelid = 'orders'::regclass;

The aforementioned queries only covered constraints between tables. This is not the end of the story, so read the There's more... section.

How it works…

When we create a foreign key, we add a constraint to the catalog table, known as pg_constraint. Therefore, the query shows us how to find all the constraints that depend upon the orders table.

There's more…

With Postgres, there's always a little more when you look beneath the surface. In this case, there's a lot more, and it's important.

We didn't discuss dependencies with other kinds of objects. Two important types of objects that might have dependencies on tables are views and functions.

Consider the following command:

DROP TABLE orders;

If you issue this, the dependency on any of the views will prevent the table from being dropped. So, you need to remove those views and then drop the table.

The story with function dependencies is not as useful. Relationships between functions and tables are not recorded in the catalog, nor is the dependency information between functions. This is partly due to the fact that most PostgreSQL procedural languages allow dynamic query execution, so you wouldn't be able to tell which tables or functions a function would access until it executes. That's only partly the reason because most functions clearly reference other tables and functions, so it should be possible to identify and store those dependencies. However, right now, we don't do that. So, make a note that you need to record the dependency information for your functions manually so that you'll know if and when it's okay to remove or alter a table or other objects that the functions depend on.