The distinction between confounding and associations

We will focus here on understanding the distinction between confounding and association, as touched upon briefly in the previous chapter. Recall that confounding occurs when an extraneous variable, not accounted for in the analysis, affects both the independent (treatment) and dependent (outcome) variables in a study, thereby masking the genuine causal connection. Such a confounder can give rise to a false association, potentially misleading the understanding of the direct influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, in a study examining the relationship between sports wear sales and fishing accidents, weather could be a confounder, influencing both variables and creating a false association. On the other hand, an association denotes a noted linkage between two variables, which does not necessarily signify a cause-and-effect relationship and does not inherently account for the presence of any external...