Is it an association or really causation?

It’s tempting to attribute causality to superficial observations, mistaking mere associations for causation. Take, for instance, the observation that social media posts made later in the day receive fewer likes and comments, suggesting reduced engagement. One might hastily conclude that the timing of these posts is the causal factor. However, without rigorous statistical testing, such claims remain speculative. In this book, we will teach you how to conduct these necessary tests, distinguishing between simple association and true causation.

In statistics, we discuss association, causation, and correlation. While correlation is often used interchangeably with association in everyday conversations, they have distinct meanings in statistical contexts. So, what is the difference between association and correlation?

In causality, association encapsulates a general linkage between two variables, without explicitly characterizing the...